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This paper presents a comparison of the influence of different mixture preparation strategies on gaseous fuel combustion in SI engines. Three mixture preparation strategies are presented for a dedicated LPG fuelled engine, showing varying results - gaseous phase port injection (PFI-G), liquid-phase port injection (PFI-L) and gaseous-phase throttle-body injection (TBI-G). Previous work by the authors has shown considerable differences in emissions and thermal efficiency between different fuelling strategies. This paper extends this work to the area of combustion characteristics and lean limit operation and closer analyses the differences between these systems. A dedicated LPG in-line six cylinder engine with compression ratio increased to 11.7:1 (up from the standard 9.65:1) was tested over a range of speed/torque conditions representing most of the steady-state parts of the Euro drive-cycle for light duty-vehicles. The air-fuel ratio was varied from lambda 1.0 to the lean limit.

A high compression ratio, single cylinder, open chamber diesel engine was converted to operate on homogenously charged compressed natural gas (CNG) with the aim of minimising pollutant emissions such as oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter and carbon dioxide. Three ignition systems were tested including spark ignition (SI), diesel pilot ignition (DPI) and hydrogen assisted jet ignition (HAJI). Irrespective of ignition system used, the efficiency of the engine operating on CNG was significantly reduced at part load compared to diesel. This was predominantly due to a greater amount of unburnt hydrocarbons, higher cycle-by-cycle variability, slow and partial burns and increased heat transfer to the walls. DPI and HAJI systems were able to extend the lean limit to lambda 2.7 and 3.3 respectively, however this did not result in efficiency gains.

This paper presents a study of the performance of a lean burn, natural gas-fuelled, naturally aspirated, spark ignition engine for an E class vehicle. Engine performance and exhaust emissions (NO, CO, and UHC) data are first discussed. An energy balance of the engine operating at different loads and air-fuel ratios is then presented, and used to explain why engine efficiency varies with air-fuel ratio. Finally, the hot start drive cycle CO2e (CO2 equivalent) emissions are estimated for a vehicle with this engine. This shows a potential for significant reduction in vehicle greenhouse gas emissions compared to an equivalent gasoline-fuelled vehicle.

The challenge of tough fuel consumption reduction targets and near zero NOx emission standards can be met by optimization of the full range of engine design variables. Here these are explored through an engine simulation model and the application of an optimizing algorithm that can work in discontinuous data space. The combustion model has main features that include flame propagation, the effects of turbulence, chamber shape interaction and NOx formation. Two engine configurations are used to illustrate the application of the model and optimizer. Both allow the adoption of extra lean burn possible with LPG as fuel and EGR through an external route or cam phasing. In the first the compression ratio and cam profiles are fixed, in the second study they are also optimized.

This paper describes the mechanical component design, lubrication, tuning and control aspects of a restricted, odd fire, highly turbocharged (TC) engine for Formula SAE competition. The engine was specifically designed and configured for the purpose, being a twin cylinder inline arrangement with double overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. Most of the engine components were specially cast or machined from billets. A detailed theoretical analysis was completed to determine engine specifications and operating conditions. Results from the analysis indicated a new engine design was necessary to sustain highly TC operation. Dry sump lubrication was implemented after initial oil surge problems were found with the wet sump system during vehicle testing. The design and development of the system is outlined, together with brake performance effects for the varying systems.

This paper describes the turbocharger development of a restricted 430 cm3 odd firing two cylinder engine. The downsized test engine used for development was specifically designed and configured for Formula SAE, SAE's student Formula race-car competition. A well recognised problem in turbocharging Formula SAE engines arises from the rules, which dictate that the throttle and air intake restrictor must be on the suction side of the compressor. As a consequence of upstream throttling, oil from the compressor side seal assembly is drawn into the inlet manifold. The development process used to solve the oil consumption issue for a Garrett GT-12 turbocharger is outlined, together with cooling and control issues. The development methodology used to achieve high pressure ratio turbocharging is discussed, along with exhaust manifold development and operating limitations. This includes experimental and modeling results for both pulse and constant pressure type turbocharging.

The HAJI (Hydrogen Assisted Jet Ignition) system for S.I. engines utilises direct injection of small amounts of hydrogen to enhance the combustion of a variety of automotive fuels. Although not the primary purpose of HAJI, the hardware, once in place, also lends itself to the possibility of hydrogen-only running during a cold start. Cold-start simulations have been performed using a single cylinder engine. Results are presented, comparing hydrogen-only tests with standard HAJI operation and normal spark-ignition operation. HAJI and spark ignition tests were carried out with gasoline as the main-chamber fuel. Emission levels and combustion stability characteristics were recorded as the engine warmed up. The differences between the various fueling/ignition scenarios are presented and the implications for possible automotive applications are discussed in light of current and proposed emissions legislation.

Gas assisted jet ignition is an advanced prechamber ignition process that allows ignition of ultra lean mixtures in an otherwise standard spark ignition engine. The results presented in this paper indicate that in a gas assisted jet ignition system fuelled with LPG in both the main chamber and prechamber, the lean limit can be extended to between λ = 2-2.35, depending on the load and speed. Although the fuel combinations that employ H2 as the prechamber fuel can extend the lean limit furthest (λ = 2.5-2.6), the extension enabled by the LPG-LPG prechamber-main chamber combination provides lower NOx emission levels at similar λ. In addition, when LPG is employed in place of gasoline as the main chamber fuel, hydrocarbon emissions are significantly reduced, however with a slight penalty in indicated mean effective pressure due to the gaseous state of the LPG.

Cyclic variability in spark ignition engine combustion, especially at high dilution through lean burn or high EGR rates, places limits on in-cylinder NOx reduction and thermal efficiency. Flame wrinkling, resulting from interactions with turbulence, is a potential source of cyclic variations in turbulence. Previous studies have shown that flame kernels are subject to significant distortions when they are smaller than the integral length scale of turbulence. With the assumption that flame development is not subject to noticeable variations, after it reaches the integral length scale, the authors have shown that turbulent-burning-caused combustion variability can be successfully modeled as a function of laminar flame speed and turbulence intensity. This paper explores the contributions of flame wrinkling to flame kernel growth variation. As the kernel growth problem is complex, this study only explores one of the many aspects of the problem.

In this paper the experimental performance of the lean limits is examined for two different types of engines the first a dedicated LPG high compression ratio 2-valve per cylinder engine (Ford of Australia MY 2001 AU Falcon) and the second a gasoline moderate compression 4-valve per cylinder variant of the same engine (Ford of Australia MY 2006 BF Falcon). The in-cylinder composition at the lean limit over a range of steady state operating conditions is estimated using a quasi-dimensional model. This makes it possible to take into account the effects of both residual fraction and fresh charge diluents (EGR and excess air) that allow the exploration of a modeled lean limit performance [1, 2]. The results are compared to the predictions from a model for combustion variability applied to the quasi-dimensional model operating in optimization mode.

Increasing engine power and efficiency using a particle swarm optimization technique is investigated by using thermodynamics based quasi-steady engine simulation model. A simplified engine friction model is also incorporated to estimate the brake power output. Further, a simple knock model is used to make sure of knock free engine operation. Model is calibrated and validated to a Ford Falcon AU six-cylinder gasoline engine. Nine different engine-operating parameters are considered as input variables for the optimization; spark timing, equivalence ratio, compression ratio, inlet and exhaust vale opening timing and durations, maximum inlet valve lift and manifold pressure. Significant improvement of the engine power output for a given amount of induced gas is observed with the optimized conditions when compared to the corresponding power output with the reference engines normal operating conditions.

Exhaust emission tests were performed on a fleet of vehicles comprising a range of engine technology from leaded fuel control methods to closed loop three-way catalyst meeting 1992 U.S. standards but marketed in Australia. Each vehicle was tested to 5 different driving cycles including the FTP cycles and steady speed driving. Research had shown that for hot-start operation the major driving pattern parameters which influence fuel consumption and exhaust emissions are average speed and PKE (the positive acceleration kinetic energy per unit distance). Plots from analysis of micro-trip fuel use and emissions rates from the test cycles may be presented as contours in PKE. It follows that the micro trip emissions from a range of driving cycles including, regulated e.g. FTP city and unregulated e.g. LA-92, recently developed EPA cycles or from other cities e.g. Bangkok can be superimposed.

This paper describes the design and development of an engine with constant power for SAE's student Formula race-car competition, allowing the avoidance of gear shifting for much of the Autocross event. To achieve constant power for over 50% of the speed range, turbocharging was adopted with a boost pressure ratio of 2.8 at mid-range speeds and applied to an engine capacity of 430 cc. This engine was specifically designed and configured for the purpose, being a twin cylinder in-line arrangement with double overhead camshafts. Most of the engine components were specially cast or machined from billets. The capacity was selected to minimise frictional losses and thus increase delivered power along with dry sump lubrication and a three speed gear box. The engine manifolds and plenums were designed using a CAE application and proved to be well suited to the task resulting in excellent agreement between predicted and actual performance.

The degree of physical deterioration of catalytic converters removed from two groups of motor vehicles with low and high odometer readings have been studied. The changes in the physical and chemical properties between the two catalyst groups were investigated using the XRD, BET and PIXE/PIGE techniques. Thermal damage was the main catalyst deterioration mechanism in both odometer groups. The low odometer group showed near-uniformity in both surface area loss (average 45 %) and degree of CeO2 sintering representing the baseline thermal deterioration from normal vehicle operation. High odometer catalysts displayed more complex deactivation mechanisms involving both chemical contamination and thermal deactivation such as support phase transformation, internal “hot zones” and contaminant-support interactions.

This is the second part of a two-part study that compared the degree of deterioration of catalytic converters taken from vehicles with low and high odometer readings. Part two details the catalytic performance characteristics of the catalysts that were physically characterised, according to chemical contamination and thermal degradation, previously in part one. The catalytic activity was determined using engine dynamometer and laboratory tests. The low odometer catalysts showed largely uniform light-off temperatures for CO, HC and NO that were increased in the order of 20 % relative to a new catalyst. The steady state activity was largely unaffected. The dominant deactivation mechanism of these catalysts was found to be the baseline thermal deterioration of the alumina washcoat under normal vehicle operating conditions. The deactivation shown in the high odometer catalysts was highly varied with the greatest loss of activity resulting from exposure to severe thermal conditions.

This paper describes the design and development of a gasketless interface, which was used successfully to couple an aluminium cylinder head to an open deck design cylinder block. The cylinder block was manufactured from aluminium, featuring shrink fit dry cast iron liners. Extensive CAE modelling was employed to implement the gasketless interface and thus avoid using a conventional metal or fiber based cylinder head gasket. The engine was specifically designed and configured for the purpose, being a 430 cm3, highly turbocharged (TC) twin cylinder in-line arrangement with double overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. Most of the engine components were specially cast or machined from billets. The new design removed the conventional head gasket and relied on the correct amount of face pressure generated by interference between the cylinder head and block to seal the interface. This had advantages in improving the structural integrity of the weak open deck design.

This paper compares the performance, efficiency, emissions and combustion parameters of a prototype two cylinder 430 cm3 engine which has been tested in a variety of normally aspirated (NA) modes with compression ratio (CR) variations. Experiments were completed using 98-RON pump gasoline with modes defined by alterations to the induction system, which included carburetion and port fuel injection (PFI). The results from this paper provide some insight into the CR effects for small NA spark ignition (SI) engines. This information provides future direction for the development of smaller engines as engine downsizing grows in popularity due to rising oil prices and recent carbon dioxide (CO2) emission regulations. Results are displayed in the engine speed, manifold absolute pressure (MAP) and CR domains, with engine speeds exceeding 10000 rev/min and CRs ranging from 9 to 13. Combustion analysis is also included, allowing mass fraction burn (MFB) comparison.

Gasoline Direct Injection (DI) is a technique that was successful in motor sports several decades ago and is now relatively popular in passenger car applications only. DI gasoline fuel injectors have been recently improved considerably, with much higher fuel flow rates and much finer atomization enabled by the advances in fuel pressure and needle actuation. These improved injector performance and the general interest in reducing fuel consumption also in motor sports have made this option interesting again. This paper compares Port Fuel Injection (PFI) and DI of gasoline fuel in a high performance, four cylinder spark ignition engine for super bike racing. Computations are performed with a code for gas exchange, heat transfer and combustion, simulating turbulent combustion and knock.

This paper compares the performance of a small two cylinder, 430 cm3 engine which has been tested in a variety of normally aspirated (NA) and forced induction modes on 98-RON pump gasoline. These modes are defined by variations in the induction system and associated compression ratio (CR) alterations needed to avoid knock and maximize volumetric efficiency (ηVOL). These modes included: (A) NA with carburetion (B) NA with port fuel injection (PFI) (C) Mildly Supercharged (SC) with PFI (D) Highly Turbocharged (TC) with PFI The results have significant relevance in defining the limitations for small downsized spark ignition (SI) engines, with power increases needed via intake boosting to compensate for the reduced swept volume. Performance is compared in the varying modes with comparisons of brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), brake power, ηVOL, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake thermal efficiency (ηTH).

This paper provides some insight into the future direction for developing smaller capacity downsized engines, which will be needed to meet tight CO₂ targets and the world's future powertrain requirements. This paper focuses on the combustion system development and combustion analysis results for a downsized 0.43-liter highly turbocharged engine. The inline two-cylinder engine used in experiments was specifically designed and constructed to enable 25 bar BMEP. Producing this specific output is one way forward for future passenger vehicle powertrains, enabling in excess of 50% swept capacity reduction whilst maintaining comparable vehicle performance. Previous experiments and analysis have found that the extent to which larger engines can be downsized while still maintaining equal performance is combustion limited.